The Geneva Convention in 1977 - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 5 Words: 1431 Downloads: 4 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Law Essay Did you like this example? There was a major revision of the Geneva Conventions in 1977, and both Additional Protocols I and II to the Geneva Conventions of 1949 were adopted. The first dealt with international armed conflict, whereas the second concerned with protection of persons who are victims of internal armed conflicts. The Martens Clause contained in the Preamble of the AP II holds cases that are not protected under the Protocol, would still be subject to the principles of humanity and the dictates of public conscience. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The Geneva Convention in 1977" essay for you Create order The principle of humanity complements and limits the doctrine of military necessity by proscribing direct attacks against the civilian population and the use of violent acts which result in unnecessary suffering. The AP II refers to the principle of humanity as contained the customary law principle of civilian immunity and the principle of distinction in United Nations Resolution 2444, to internal armed conflicts.[1] Articles 1 and 2 of the AP II contain the scope of its application. Article 2 provides that all persons affected by an armed conflict are to receive protection under the Protocol, without any adverse distinction based on race, color, sex, language, religion or belief, political opinion, national or social origin, wealth or other status. While the Common Article 3 does not define the term non-international armed conflict, Article 1 of the AP II defines it as: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“armed conflicts which are not covered by Article 1 of the Additional Protocol I (internat ional armed conflicts) and which take place in the territory of a High Contracting Party between its armed forces and dissident armed forces or other organized armed groups which, under responsible command, exercise such control over a part of its territory as to enable them to carry out sustained and concerted military operations and to implement this Protocol. [2] Thus on the observation of Article 1 of the AP II, it can be said that the terms à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“non-international armed conflictà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  applies only to the most intense and large-scale conflicts. The requirements of control over a part of the territory of the State, and the ability to accomplish sustained and concerted military operations, make the AP II armed conflicts similar in many respects to international armed conflicts. Article 3 of the AP II provides that the Protocol cannot be invoked to affect a States sovereignty, its responsibility to maintain law and order or its defense of national unity and te rritorial integrity and further provides that the Protocol cannot justify any intervention, either direct or indirect, in a conflict or in the internal or external affairs of the State. Article 4 on fundamental guarantees relates to civilians who either do not take part in the hostilities or who have ceased to take part in hostilities. It specifically prohibits the order of no quarter. It also prohibits the following acts at any time and in any place: violence to the life, health and physical or mental well-being of persons, in particular murder as well as cruel treatment such as torture, mutilation or any form of corporal punishment; collective punishments; taking of hostages; acts of terrorism; Outrages upon personal dignity, in particular humiliating and degrading treatment, rape, enforced prostitution and any form or indecent assault; Slavery and the slave trade in all their forms; pillage; threats to commit any of the foregoing acts. Article 4 (3) provides detailed protection to children and, in particular, guarantees the right to education, including religious and moral education; and the reunion of families temporarily separated. It provides that children who are below the age of fifteen years shall neither be recruited in the armed forces or groups nor be allowed to take part in hostilities. In case children below the age of fifteen years take a direct part in hostilities, they shall be provided special protection. Children temporarily removed from the areas of hostility to safer locations must be accompanied by persons responsible for their safety and well-being. Article 5 of the Protocol deals with persons whose liberty has been restricted for reasons related to the armed conflict. It covers essential aspects of treatment which must be observed as a minimum in all cases like medical treatment, food, water, freedom of religion, etc., and also other important issues like accommodation, communication, a nd medical experimentation. (For details See Article 5 of Protocol II). On the Observation Article 5 it is viewed that it does not have any provision relating to visit by impartial bodies to places of detention, whereas Article 126 of the third Geneva Convention refers to such visits. Thus the Protocol allows a detaining power to ensure a complete cloak of secrecy around the treatment meted out to detainees. Article 6 of the Protocol applies to the prosecution and punishment of perpetrators of criminal offences related to armed conflicts and states that no sentence shall be passed and no penalty shall be executed on a person found guilty of an offence except pursuant to a conviction pronounced by a court offering the essential guarantees of independence and impartiality.[3] In particular, these guarantees require that an accused must be informed about the details of the offence alleged against him and he must be afforded all the necessary rights and means of defense during the trial. These rights are based on Article 14 of the ICCPR relating to the right to a fair trial. Article 6 also requires that the death penalty not be pronounced on persons who were under the age of 18 years at the time of the offence and not be carried out on pregnant women or mothers of young children. At the end of hostilities, an endeavor must be made by the authorities in power to grant amnesty to persons who have participated in the armed conflict, or those deprived of their liberty for reasons related to the armed conflict.[4] U C Jha, Wing Commander (Retd)), in his work à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“International Humanitarian Law, The Laws of Warà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  viewed: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“The Protocol also provides rules for the treatment of the wounded, sick and shipwrecked (Articles 7 and 8), and the protection of medical and religious personnel, and medical units and transports (Articles 9 to 11). Article 12 provides for the display and respect of the distinctive emblem of the Red Cross. The provisions for the protection of the civilian population and cultural property are contained in Articles 13 to 18. Article 13 which relates to civilian immunity, does not define the terms individual civilians and civilian population. The Protocol covers not only the peaceable population, but also civilians who participate or have participated in hostilities without a combatant status. While taking a direct or active role in hostilities, these individuals forfeit their immunity from direct attack, but retain their status as civilians unlike combatants, once their participation ceases, these civilians may no longer be attacked, although they may be subject to trial and punishment by the adverse party for having assumed the role of a combatant. The provisions relating to dissemination, ratification, signature, accession, denunciation and registration are contained in the last part (Articles 19 to 28) of the Protocol.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ [5] As on 31 December 2010, the Genev a Conventions of 1949 had been ratified by 190 countries, whereas the AP II had been ratified by only 165 countries. The countries which had not signed and ratified the AP II included the USA, India, Iraq, Iran, Myanmar, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Israel, and Sri Lanka. The past century has seen an increase in the proportion of non-combatant deaths in conflict. Williams Paui D, in its research paper opined that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“during the First World War, an estimated 5 per cent of casualties were civilians. In the Second World War, the figure was 50 per cent. Today, 80à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ 90 per cent of war casualties are civilians, the majority of them women and children. A large number of non-combatants die from the indirect effects of conflictà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ from [1]. Resolution 2444 (XXIII) of the UN General Assembly, 19 December 1968. Respect for Human Rights in Armed Conflicts. ItAffirmsresolution XXVIII of the XXth International Conference of the Red Cross held at Vienna in 1965, which laid down, the following principles for observance by all governmental and other authorities responsible for action in armed conflicts: (a) That the right of the parties to a conflict to adopt means of injuring the enemy is not unlimited; (b) That it is prohibited to launch attacks against the civilian populations as such; and (c) That distinction must be made at all times between persons taking part in the hostilities and members of the civilian population to the effect that the latter be spared as much as possible. These fundamental humanitarian law principles apply in both international and internal conflicts. [2]. See Article 1 of Additional Protocol II, 1977, Part 1 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Scope of This Protocolà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ . [3] See Article 6 of P rotocol II. [4] Ibid. [5]. Jha U C (Wing Commander (Retd)), International Humanitarian Law,The Laws of War, Forwared by Christopher Harland Published by Vij Books India Pvt Ltd, New Delhi.

Stanley Fish Save the World on Your Own - 1101 Words

Save the world on your own by Stanley Fish provides some valuable arguments about methods of education. Fish interprets some of the best universities techniques of education and provide a new concept or idealist way in his own point of view. Most of the universities’ mission statement has nothing to do with the universities’ role towards society. The interference of political, moral, and ethical views during the course of education affects a student’s beliefs and ideologies. Fish believes that the techniques of evaluating ideologies is what a student should be learning, rather than building a belief on a teacher’s point of view for example. Fish’s solution was not abandoning political issues in class, but adapting to the issues on an academic hand rather than always evaluating opinions overheard everywhere. The technique or way he is trying to approach is called â€Å"academicizing† the course of education. The analyzing of Fish’s argu ment follows the Toulmin argument technique, which contains of claim, reason, qualifier, warrant, backing and rebuttal. Fish claims that it is not the universities job to interfere with moral and civic knowledge of a student, but provide the information needed for the student to develop the skills for evaluating and conducting a free moral, political, ethical, or social view. â€Å"The job of someone who teaches in a collage or a university is to introduce students to bodies of knowledge and traditions of inquiry they didn’t know much about before; equipShow MoreRelatedAcademic Dishonesty Essay1197 Words   |  5 Pagespart of their lives, from their academic work, to their personal appearance, to their sexual expression. According to Stanley Fish in his work Save the World On Your Own Time, this type of education is not the university’s job, â€Å"the practices of responsible citizenship and moral behavior should be encouraged in our young adults, but it’s not the business of the university to do so† (Fish 67). If honor codes tread into this territory, it serves the exac t opposite of its intended purpose. Honor codes madeRead MoreCase Coy Story2754 Words   |  12 PagesPRINCETON, NJ 08543-0300. DO NOT EDIT OR ALTER REPRINTS, REPRODUCTIONS NOT PERMITTED EV I EW Several analysts, including Michael Savner of Banc of America Securities, peg fair value for Pixar in the low 60s, while a more bearish Rich Bilotti of Morgan Stanley carries a price target of 45. The bull case is that Pixar s earnings could double under a new distribution agreement, letting it net $3 to $4 a share annually. Put a price/earnings multiple of 25 on $4 in yearly earnings and Pixar eventually couldRead MoreCase Coy Story2763 Words   |  12 PagesNJ 08543-0300. DO NOT EDIT OR ALTER REPRINTS, REPRODUCTIONS NOT PERMITTED EV I EW Several analysts, including Michael Savner of Banc of America Securities, peg fair value for Pixar in the low 60s, while a more bearish Rich Bilotti of Morgan Stanley carries a price target of 45. The bull case is that Pixar s earnings could double under a new distribution agreement, letting it net $3 to $4 a share annually. Put a price/earnings multiple of 25 on $4 in yearly earnings and Pixar eventually couldRead More Christian and Pagan Influence in Paradise Lost and Beowulf Essay4093 Words   |  17 Pagespast against the new teachings of Christianity, the poet himself was put to task to successfully blend these religious ideologies in a complex yet effective plot that appealed to his audience precisely because they were attempting to reconcile their own beliefs. Although Beowulf most likely began as such a pagan epic, it eventually was expanded to include Christian elements, whereas Paradise Lost is definitely a Christian tale that uses classical allusions to remain connected to the epic traditionRead MoreExamine the Significance of Blank Spaces in Conrads Heart of Darkness?2902 Words   |  12 PagesThe books chosen as reference are Erewhon by Samuel Butler2, Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad3, and The Lost World by Arthur Conan Doyle4. Written in 1871, 1902 and 1912 respectively, these books were published at the end of an intense period of exploration ‘in which Britain, like most of Western Europe, spilled out to investigate, explore, colonise and exploit the rest of the world.5 This upsurge in imperialism, coupled with the great scientific and technological advances of the Industrial RevolutionRead MoreTrouble in Paradise with Comments6022 Words   |  25 Pagescelebrating the joint ventures tenth anniversary. But as he gave Wind ier a quick rundown of what he intended to say - mostly about the joint ventures progress toward world-class qualityMike could sense his bosss growing frustration. Aboutfiveminutes into the call. Windier cut Mike off in midsentence. saying,Dont throw your shoulder out patting yourself on the back. Windier reminded Mike about the margins he was looking for across all of Heartland Spindles businesses. A 4% ROI is patheticRead MoreWall Street14268 Words   |  58 Pages He also meets Darien at a party that Gekko is throwing, and now that he is starting to make so much money, he can afford to go out with her, despite her very expensive taste. Unfortunately, though Bud soon learns the dark side of Gekko’s trading world, including his willingness to break any law, or for that matter, destroy any company, to make more and more money. This includes even the company where Bud’s father is the leader of the labor union, and for Bud, that is a bad deal that is just tooRead MoreCvs Comparation5058 Words   |  21 Pagesor pharmacy counters, they have to pass by chocolates, sodas, digital cameras, watches, toys, dolls, beers and wines, cosmetics, video games, flowers, fragrances, and greeting cards. Drug stores hope you use the one-hour photos services and exchange your liquid propane tanks there. The stores also carry seasonal items, e.g. Halloween costumes, and â€Å"As Seen on TV† merchandise, e.g. Shamwow. As a result, customers buy more than their prescriptions and medicine in these drugstores. Rite Aid sells moreRead MoreLiterary Criticism : The Free Encyclopedia 7351 Words   |  30 PagesApprenticeship by Johann Wolfgang Goethe in 1795–96,[8] or, sometimes, to Christoph Martin Wieland s Geschichte des Agathon of 1767.[9] Although the Bildungsroman arose in Germany, it has had extensive influence first in Europe and later throughout the world. Thomas Carlyle translated Goethe’s novel into English, and after its publication in 1824, many British authors wrote novels inspired by it.[10][11] In the 20th century, it spread to Germany, Britain,[12] France,[13][14] and several other countriesRead MoreVarian Solution153645 Words   |  615 Pagesmarket and that 1 of them is turned into a condominium. (a) Suppose that person A decides to buy the condominium. What will be the highest price at which the demand for apartments will equal the supply of apartments? What will be the lo west price? Enter your answers in column A, in the table. Then calculate the equilibrium prices of apartments if B, C, . . . , decide to buy the condominium. NAME 3 Person High price Low price A B C D E F G H 18 15 18 15 18 15

Lees Surrender Essay Example For Students

Lees Surrender Essay Some people believe that Robert E. Lee did not have that much influence on the South. They believe that he was a just a great general and that he didnt have much impact on the Confederate states. These people must have been from the North because General Robert E. Lee had a great impact on the South during the war, but he had an even greater impact after the war. People do not always act in their own interests. The South spent more in loss of lives than keeping slavery was worth in economic terms. The North spent more fighting the South than it would have cost to pay for the slave owners for their property. People by large are guided by leaders. When their leaders march off into a folly, the people often follow (Alexander 318). The smartest thing Lee ever did was surrender at Appomattox and put an end to the fighting. Before Lee surrendered, he was confronted by Porter Alexander and offered the idea of guerrilla warfare. Lee forcefully and finally rejected the idea of this. He saved countless lives of his soldiers by rejecting this idea. Lee made this statement in the hours before the surrender, It is our duty to live, for what will become of the women and children of the South if we are not here to support and protect them (Bradford 111). The South had a great deal of honor and respect for Lee. Everyone knew that Lee had fought to the very end. He had a great influence over the South, consequently, when Lee asked his men to be as good as citizens of a united nation as they had been good soldiers in war, they agreed whole-heartily. His ideas turned many Southerners away from their feelings of hate and revenge toward cooperation and peace (Alexander 320). After the war, the South realized that slavery was too expensive. The day after the surrender, Lee told Grant, The South was now as opposed to human bondage as the North (Alexander 320). The only real issue between the North and South had been settled. If Robert. E. Lee wanted to continue fighting the civil war, he could have with much support. Lee was loved deeply by his soldiers, and they would have fought with him to the very end. That Lee was beloved by his army it is hardly necessary to say, immensely beloved, beloved as few generals have ever been (Bradford 82). Lees army trusted him and his decisions. They followed his orders and would have followed the order to stay and fight. Lee made the South realize that the Civil War was actually a war between brother, not a war between enemies. If Lee had called for more fighting, the history books would be telling of more bloodshed and division between the North and the South. After the war, Lee turned down offers to become an executive and live the rest of his life in a wealthy fashion. Instead, he became president of Washington and Lee University. Here, he taught new Southerners to be Patriotic, loyal citizens of a united nation (Alexander 320). Lee did not win the Civil War for the South. He made it possible, though, for the North to reunite in friendship and unity. He made it possible for the North and South to create the most successful nation in history. Surely, people can see that he had a much more profound impact than being just a great general in the worst war in American history. Bibliography:

Tragedy of Disappointment free essay sample

Omar Said At the height of his presidency, Woodrow Wilson had many successes that made a huge Impact on the country as well as the world. However, he also had very bad points as well. One of those bad points was the Treaty of Versailles. In many ways, the Treaty of Versailles mirrored his presidency. HIS ruthlessness for self- determination in his policies coming Into Paris did not allow him to get what he really wanted In the treaty.In the end, Wilson was not ready for the responsibilities of oral leadership. Woodrow Willows foreign policy In many ways was a contradiction. Prior to the war, Wilson pursued neutrality very aggressively. Yet In 1917, Woodrow Wilson entered America Into World War l. Even though he had exposure to the horrors of war, he led America into war against the Central Powers. This was very contradictory and mirrored his other policies. In the beginning of his presidency, he was a democrat who wanted to have separate businesses and small government. We will write a custom essay sample on Tragedy of Disappointment or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Yet later, he adopted many of Roosevelt New Nationalism policies. His one point that he wanted in the treaty was a League of Nations to keep world peace and to end all wars. This was what he dubbed the war to end all wars. His relentless chase for the league of nations kept him from accomplishing any of his other 13 points he wanted to implement. Even his selection of his delegates at the Peace Conference was very weird. He selected Lansing even though as Margaret Mcmillan said that him liking Lansing turned into irritation and contempt.Even though the points above made him seem silly, he had a huge impact because he put America in the drivers seat of world affairs. However, in the end, he was not ready for world leadership because he was a huge contradiction in his policies and wanted violence despite wanting to keep peace. This compares him a lot to Andrew Jackson because his policies were very contradicting in their purpose. For example, he was an American who fought for the peoples rights In government yet he was one of the Indians as well.

Schools Should Ask Students to Evaluate Their Teachers Essay Example

Schools Should Ask Students to Evaluate Their Teachers Essay Schools should ask students to evaluate their teachers. There are with no doubt a lot of good and experienced teachers, but in my opinion there are also a lot that do not belong in the classroom. Schools should ask students to evaluate their teachers in order to avoid choosing bad and inexperienced teachers, in order to learn what students like and dislike about the teaching methods and to make them feel more valuable for the school. First of all, a good teacher should have enough educational experience, he should know how to make himself understood, he should treat his students with respect, he should be helpful and concerned. A lot of teachers don’t have these qualities. If teachers are evaluated by their students and their opinions are really taken serious, I think that this problem would be if not entirely removed then at least reduced. Teachers play an important role in student’s lives and they should be very carefully chosen. Second of all, the quality of teaching is also very important and it is something that the administration of school cannot accurately estimate. Students should be able to grade and evaluate the teaching methods in class. They observe teachers’ work every day and can say what is easy or difficult for them, which activities they enjoy the most or what kind of exams they prefer. In addition to this, knowing that their opinions matter would make students feel more valuable for the school and less controlled by the teachers. We will write a custom essay sample on Schools Should Ask Students to Evaluate Their Teachers specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Schools Should Ask Students to Evaluate Their Teachers specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Schools Should Ask Students to Evaluate Their Teachers specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Students would feel better and more confident if they know that they are not the only ones that are going to be grated at the end of the year. Moreover, evaluating teachers is good for the students because is teaches them honesty and responsibility. To sum up, I think that evaluating teachers by students would be very useful for the whole educational system. It helps choosing the right teachers, the right teaching methods and it is beneficial for the students themselves.

Borons Chemical and Physical Properties

Boron's Chemical and Physical Properties Atomic number: 5Symbol: BAtomic weight: 10.811Electron configuration: [He]2s22p1Word origin: Arabic Buraq; Persian Burah. These are the Arabic and Persian words for borax.Isotopes: Natural boron is 19.78% boron-10 and 80.22% boron-11. B-10 and B-11 are the two stable isotopes of boron. Boron has a total of 11 known isotopes ranging from B-7 to B-17. Properties The melting point of boron is 2079Â °C, its boiling/sublimation point is at 2550Â °C, the specific gravity of crystalline boron is 2.34, the specific gravity of the amorphous form is 2.37, and its valence is 3. Boron has interesting optical properties. The boron mineral ulexite exhibits natural fiberoptic properties. Elemental boron transmits portions of infrared light. At room temperature, it is a poor electrical conductor, but it is a good conductor at high temperatures. Boron is capable of forming stable covalently bonded molecular networks. Boron filaments have high strength, yet are lightweight. The energy band gap of elemental boron is 1.50 to 1.56 eV, which is higher than that of silicon or germanium. Although elemental boron is not considered to be a poison, assimilation of boron compounds has a cumulative toxic effect. Uses Boron compounds are being evaluated for treating arthritis. Boron compounds are used to produce borosilicate glass. Boron nitride is extremely hard, behaves as an electrical insulator, yet conducts heat, and has lubricating properties similar to graphite. Amorphous boron provides a green color in pyrotechnic devices. Boron compounds, such as borax and boric acid, have many uses. Boron-10 is used as a control for nuclear reactors, to detect neutrons, and as a shield for nuclear radiation. Sources Boron is not found free in nature, although boron compounds have been known for thousands of years. Boron occurs as borates in borax and colemanite and as orthoboric acid in certain volcanic spring waters. The primary source of boron is the mineral rasorite, also called kernite, which is found in Californias Mojave Desert. Borax deposits are also found in Turkey. High-purity crystalline boron may be obtained by vapor phase reduction of boron trichloride or boron tribromide with hydrogen on electrically heated filaments. Boron trioxide may be heated with magnesium powder to obtain impure or amorphous boron, which is a brownish-black powder. Boron is available commercially at purities of 99.9999%. Quick Facts Element Classification: SemimetalDiscoverer: Sir H. Davy, J.L. Gay-Lussac, L.J. ThenardDiscovery date: 1808 (England/France)Density (g/cc): 2.34Appearance: Crystalline boron is hard, brittle, lustrous black semimetal. Amorphous boron is a brown powder.Boiling point: 4000 Â °CMelting point: 2075 Â °CAtomic radius (pm): 98Atomic volume (cc/mol): 4.6Covalent radius (pm): 82Ionic radius: 23 (3e)Specific heat (20Â °C J/g mol): 1.025Fusion heat (kJ/mol): 23.60Evaporation heat (kJ/mol): 504.5Debye temperature (K): 1250.00Pauling negativity number: 2.04First ionizing energy (kJ/mol): 800.2Oxidation states: 3Lattice structure: TetragonalLattice constant (Ã…): 8.730Lattice C/A ratio: 0.576CAS number: 7440-42-8 Trivia Boron has the highest boiling point of the semimetalsBoron has the highest melting point of the semimetalsBoron is added to glass to increase its resistance to heat shock. Most chemistry glassware is made from borosilicate glassThe isotope B-10 is a neutron absorber and used in control rods and emergency shutdown systems of nuclear generatorsThe countries Turkey and the United States have the largest reserves of boronBoron is used as a dopant in semiconductor production to make p-type semiconductorsBoron is a component of strong neodymium magnets (Nd2Fe14B magnets)Boron burns bright green in a flame test References Los Alamos National Laboratory (2001)Crescent Chemical Company (2001)Langes Handbook of Chemistry (1952)International Atomic Energy Agency ENSDF database (Oct 2010)

Essay Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Essay - Assignment Example The decision by the New Plymouth District Council to bring to an end the water fluoridation is seen as thetermination of the practice in New Zealand. According to Mary Byrne of the anti-fluoride group, the Fluoride Action Network New Zealand, the New Plymouth District Council decision could bring a domino effect to other councils leading to the chemicals rejection (Stare, 1990). Fluoride, an ionic compound, contains the fluorine components. Fluoride, naturally found component in most of the rocks in New Zealand and worldwide, is the single most reactive element in water. Approximately 90 percent of the fluoride components added to the municipal water supplies come from the chemicals known as silicofluorides. The silicofluorides chemicals production is from the by-products of the manufacture of phosphate fertilizers. In most of New Zealand’s District Councils, fluoride is added to the municipal water supplies at the concentration of about one part per million or even slightly below. Fluoride concentrations occurring in surface waters depend on location, but concentrations are low, and in most cases do not exceed 0.3 ppm. Groundwater can however contain much higher concentration levels. Fluoride should not be included to the water supplied by district councils to the residents of cities and towns in New Zealand. A move by New Plymouth District Council is welcome and should act as a precedent to other district councils in New Zealand. Proponents of fluoridation argue that the fluoride helps by binding to tooth enamel. Enamel is primarily composed of hydroxylapatite; a crystal made up of phosphorus, calcium, oxygen and hydrogen. By replacement of hydroxyl molecule on hydroxylapatite, the resistance of the tooth to acidity attacks from bacteria will increase because of the fluoride components (Wagner, 1993). The proponents have however been